How certain expenses are capitalised in the balance sheet, though shown as expenses in the PL statement.

 Generally, expenses are shown in the Profit and Loss statement. There are some expenses which are normally shown in Pl statement, but sometimes also are capitalized in the balance sheet. An example is R &D expenses. But some companies resort to aggressive accounting by capitalizing expenses, more than the necessary amount. This obviously helps to inflate  the bottom line. Since over capitalizing the expenses is illegal, they often use some hidden entries, to achieve this.

 Consider the following example.

A company has incurred annual R&D expense of $400000. Out of this expense, the company can legally capitalize up to $100000. The entries are.

                                                 

This is a normal entry. The cash flow for the R&D Expenses cannot be found as a separate head in the Cash Flow statement. This is because, this is already embedded in the Profit before tax line, which is used to derive the operating cash flow, under the in direct method

However, the Capitalized R&D Expenses can be found in the Cash flow statement, as this is a non cash entry (not a non cash charge), which is added back to the PBT, to arrive at the operating cash flow.

Now consider the next entries, wherein the company resorts to aggressive accounting to reduce the R&D expenses.

Here as you see, the R&D expense is reduced to $200000, thereby increasing the bottom line by $100000. We cannot go deeper into the third entry as the notes to accounts can be quite vague for receivables. Now if we think that we can go to the cash flow statement for clarity, there too the entries can be vague. The reason is, receivables can be entered in the working capital changes section in the cash  flow statement. There also 'wont be any notes to accounts on this one too. These receivables can be carried forward perpetually to future financial years, under various premises. Of course, it is difficult, what with the world class auditors touted by these companies.  But even the auditors are sometimes hood winked.  

Treatment of stores, spares and packing materials in balance sheet and PL statement

During the normal running of a manufacturing company, there are some materials which are consumed as part of the daily operations, but cannot be considered as part of actual cost of goods sold. These are materials in stores- like stationary, spares- used for maintenance of equipments, and packing materials.

Since they are basically assets of the company and are most likely consumed in a year, they have to be recorded as current assets, and therefore logically in the inventory,

Their inventory is shown in the balance sheet where all other inventory is shown in their respective heads.

Their expense is not calculated in COGS, except sometimes for packing materials, rather, their consumption is shown as an expense in the PL statement, under other expenses. 

Stores and spares are also sometimes capitalised in the balance sheet along with the fixed asset (like machinery) for which they are consumed.

Forward Contracts, Futures, Hedging Accounting

Here, in this post we will deal with both forward contract and futures. I will first explain the forward contract accounting and hedging, and then deal with futures accounting and hedging.

Forward Contract

Worth or FMV of a Forward Contract

While the forward contract is formed it is worth less. Its FMV is Zero. As it moves towards expiry, it will have a value depending on the position of the spot price, with respect to the forward price, the probability of the spot price movement and the proximity of the expiry. Some forward contracts like some futures contract do not have an FMV through out it's life, as they are settled on a daily basis. As you read on you will know the reasons why. 

Simple Forward Contracts

A Forward Contract is an agreement between two parties, a buyer and a seller, in which the seller agrees to sell a certain quantity of a commodity for a certain price in a future date to the buyer, regardless of the price of the commodity at the time of the beginning of the contract or in the future date. The buyer in turn agrees to purchase the same quantity of commodity for the same price at the same date, specified in the contract, regardless of the price of the commodity at the time of the beginning of the contract or in the future date.

The current price of a commodity at any point of time is called the spot price.

Premium Situation

Consider a trading company which is about to enter into a forward contract with one of it's customers. The company had procured 1 ton of commodity for $7000 per tonne,for trading purposes on

1-Jan-2017. On 1- July- 2017,  the spot price of the commodity becomes $10000 per tonne. The company do not expect the price to move much forward beyond $12000 in 3 months time. So it enters into a forward contract on 1-Jul-2017 with a customer who thinks it will go much beyond.

While procuring, the company had made the following accounting entry.

On 1-Jan-2017

The forward contract stipulates that the company agrees to sell 1 tonne of the commodity at $12000 per tonne, on 1-Oct-2017, to the customer whatever the spot price at that time is. The customer has agreed to purchase 1 tonne of the commodity at $12000/tonne on 1-Oct-2017, whatever the spot price is at that time.

On 1-July-2017, when the forward contract is formed, the seller makes the following accounting entry.

Basically what the company did is that it recorded the existence of the contract in the balance sheet, although nothing physically has happened or changed. 

On 1-July-2017, when the forward contract is formed, the buyer makes the following accounting entry.

On Oct 1st, when the contract actually comes in force, the seller makes the following entries. 

I have shown the entries for two scenarios. 

1. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $11000

First of all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash receipt  of $12000. In the fifth and sixth entry, the asset is revalued to the spot price of $11000, recognizing a gain of $4000 over the purchase price of $7000. The last two entries shows the sale of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $11000, and a gain of $1000, as the forward price is $12000, and as the customer has to pay $12000 for a $11000 asset.

2. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $13000

Again all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash receipt  of $12000. In the fifth and sixth entry, the asset is revalued to the spot price of $13000, recognizing a gain of $6000 over the purchase price of $7000. The last two entries shows the sale of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $13000, and a loss of $1000, over the forward price of  $12000, as the customer has only to pay $12000 for a $13000 asset.

On Oct 1st, when the contract actually comes in force, the buyer makes the following entries. 

Again here, I have shown the entries for two scenarios.

1. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $11000

First of all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash payment  of $12000. The fifth and sixth entry shows the purchase of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $11000, and a loss of $1000, as the forward price is $12000, and as the customer has to pay $12000 for a $11000 asset.

2. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $13000

Again, all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash payment  of $12000. The fifth and sixth entry shows the purchase of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $13000, and a gain of $1000, as the forward price is $12000, as the customer has only to pay $12000 for a $13000 asset.

Discount Situation

Consider a case in which the spot price on July 1 became $14000. And the company which procured the commodity at $ 7000 believes that the price will go down well beyond $12000 in 3 months. So it forms a forward contract with a buyer for $12000, with expiry date on Oct 1, who thinks that the price wouldn't go down at all.

On 1-July-2017, when the forward contract is formed, the seller makes the following accounting entry.

 

On 1-July-2017, when the forward contract is formed, the Buyer makes the following accounting entry.



On Oct 1st, when the contract actually comes in force, the seller makes the following entries. 

I have shown the entries for two scenarios. 

1. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $13000

First of all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash receipt  of $12000. In the fifth and sixth entry, the asset is revalued to the spot price of $13000, recognizing a gain of $6000 over the purchase price of $7000. The last two entries shows the sale of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $13000, and a loss of $1000, as the forward price is $12000, and as the customer has to pay only $12000 for a $13000 asset.

2. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $11000

Again all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash receipt  of $12000. In the fifth and sixth entry, the asset is revalued to the spot price of $11000, recognizing a gain of $4000 over the purchase price of $7000. The last two entries shows the sale of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $11000, and a gain of $1000, on the forward price of  $12000, as the customer has to pay $12000 for a $11000 asset.

 On Oct 1st, when the contract actually comes in force, the buyer makes the following entries. 

 Again here, I have shown the entries for two scenarios.

1. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $13000

First of all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash payment  of $12000. The fifth and sixth entry shows the purchase of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $13000, and a gain of $1000, as the forward price is $12000, and as the customer has to pay only $12000 for a $13000 asset.

2. If the spot rate on Oct 1st is $11000

Again, all the forward contract entries are cancelled out in the first three entries. The fourth entry shows the cash payment  of $12000. The fifth and sixth entry shows the purchase of asset for the spot price on Oct 1st of $13000, and a loss of $1000, as the forward price is $12000, and the customer has  to pay $12000 for a $11000 asset.

The amortization of premium or discount will be dealt with, in the next topic.

Hedging with Forward Contracts

In order to better explain the concept of hedging, I am saving the mechanics of hedging after analyzing an example first.

Let us start with an example, straightaway and try to explain the concept of Hedging by the way of Currency Futures. As the most traded currency futures pair is EURUSD, we will see  an example which deals with EURUSD futures.

A company ABC Ltd, based in New York, sells a product to XYZ Inc which is based in London and ships it on 1st Jun 2017on three months credit. It sells the same product in the US market for $120000. Since the spot rate of EURUSD currency pair on 1st Jun 2017 is 1.20, it prices the product EUR 100000 for it's European customer. The settlement is on 1st September 2017. At the same time, in order to hedge the transaction, ABC Ltd enters into a forward contract to sell EU 100000 on 1st September 2017 to a currency dealer at a forward rate of EURUSD as stipulated in the forward contract. The dealer will send the corresponding dollar amount as agreed in the contract at the time of expiry on Sept 1. At this point we look at multiple scenarios. The balance sheet date for ABC Ltd is on 30th Jun 2017. We will consider following cases. 

If it's an exclusive forward contract

Now let us do the accounting entries as if the company has entered into an exclusive forward contract with a currency dealer. For the sake of simplicity, I am showing only the entries of the seller, ABC Ltd.

 Now since the product is physically delivered to the customer, ABC Ltd records a sale on 1st Jun 2017.

The accounting entry for sale on 1st Jun 2017 is

Also, ABC Ltd makes the following entry for the recognition of the forward contract on 1st Jun 2017.

Amortization of the Premium/Discount on the balance sheet date

On the balance sheet date, the premium or the discount on the balance sheet is always amortized and a revenue or a loss is recognized. The amortization can be calculated using various methods, which we are not going into, now.

1. On 1st September, ABC Ltd transfers EUR 100000 to the currency dealer, which is also recorded after converting to dollars on the spot rate. This is shown in the 6th line of the forward contract entries. The dealer in return sends dollars according to the forward rate in the contract. This is shown in the 5th line of the forward contract entries. On the receipt of cash, the forward contract entries are closed and a foreign exchange gain or loss is recognized.

2. On 1st September, XYZ Ltd pays cash of EUR 100000 to ABC Ltd. But it has to be recorded in dollars depending on the spot rate at that time. This is shown in the 1st line of the Cash from sale entries.

Analysis

Let us look at the total foreign exchange gain or loss for ABC Ltd on 1 Sep 2017.

Case 1A

In this case the forward rate entered on Jun 1st is 1.22 and spot rate at expiry is 1.15. While entering the forward contract on Jun 1st, ABC Ltd demanded that for each euro, he should receive $0.02 as a premium. The premium is calculated based on the market sentiment, and the proximity to the date of expiry. Clearly, ABC Ltd should have expected the dollar to depreciate and the dealer, the other way. 

At expiry, ABC Ltd made a total foreign currency gain of $2000, even though the dollar appreciated quite further. 

ABC Ltd made a gain of $7000 on forward contracts including the accrued revenue. This can be correlated as selling EURUSD currency futures at 1.22 and closing the position at 1.15, which we will see later. They also made a loss of $5000 on the sale due to currency appreciation. Ultimately they received the premium in the forward contract as gain in foreign currency. 

Case 1B

In this case the forward rate entered on Jun 1st is 1.22 and spot rate at expiry is 1.29. While entering the forward contract on Jun 1st, ABC Ltd demanded that for each euro, he should receive $0.02 as a premium.  Clearly, ABC Ltd should have expected the dollar to depreciate and the dealer, the other way. 

At expiry, ABC Ltd made only a total foreign currency gain of $2000, even though the dollar depreciated quite further. 

ABC Ltd made a loss of $7000 on forward contracts including the accrued revenue. This can be correlated as selling EURUSD currency futures at 1.22 and closing the position at 1.29, which we will see later. They also made a gain of $9000 on the sale due to currency appreciation. Ultimately they received the premium in the forward contract as gain in foreign currency. 

Case 2A

In this case the forward rate entered on Jun 1st is 1.18 and spot rate at expiry is 1.15. While entering the forward contract on Jun 1st, ABC Ltd accepted that for each euro, he should give a discount of $0.02 to the dealer. The discount is calculated based on the market sentiment, and the proximity to the date of expiry. Clearly ABC Ltd should have expected the dollar to appreciate and the dealer, the other way. 

At expiry, ABC Ltd made a total foreign currency loss of $2000 only, even though the dollar appreciated quite further. 

ABC Ltd made a gain of $3000 on forward contracts including the accrued expense. This can be correlated as selling EURUSD currency futures at 1.18 and closing the position at 1.15, which we will see later. They also made a loss of $5000 on the sale due to currency appreciation. Ultimately they lost the same amount as that of  the discount in the forward contract as loss in foreign currency. 

Case 2B

In this case the forward rate entered on Jun 1st is 1.18 and spot rate at expiry is 1.19. While entering the forward contract on Jun 1st, ABC Ltd accepted that for each euro, he should give a discount of $0.02 to the dealer.  Clearly ABC Ltd should have expected the dollar to appreciate and the dealer, the other way. 

At expiry, ABC Ltd made a total foreign currency loss of $2000, even though the dollar depreciated quite further. 

ABC Ltd made a loss of $11000 on forward contracts including the accrued expense. This can be correlated as selling EURUSD currency futures at 1.18 and closing the position at 1.29, which we will see later. They also made a gain of $9000 on the sale due to currency appreciation. Ultimately they lost the same amount as that of  the discount in the forward contract as loss in foreign currency. 

Summary

1. If we sell a product in a foreign currency while we record our statement in dollars, you need to sell the equivalent amount of foreign currency in which the product is priced, in exchange for dollars, using a forward price.

2. The forward price used for hedging depends on the spot market, the market sentiments and the date of expiry.

3. The foreign exchange gain or loss for a company is only equivalent to the discount or premium on the forward contract and does not depend on the spot rate of currency rates at the time of the expiry. And that itself is the whole point of hedging.

Mechanics of Hedging

In the example, ABC Ltd sells the product in the US market for $120000. $120000 represents the value of the product, after all the costs and a profit for the effort. When the company sells the product in a foreign country in Euros, the customer pays the company EUR 100000 for a $120000 product, after 3 months.

If you think about it, the company is actually selling $120000 and receiving EUR 100000 after 3 months. And after 3 months the value of EUR 100000 may not be $120000, as we have seen in various cases in the example. So in order to hedge the vagaries of the foreign currency value with respect to the native currency, the company takes an opposite position of the foreign currency transaction by using a forward contract or futures (which we will see in a while). Since it will buy EUR 100000 in 3 months for $120000, it will sell EUR 100000 in 3 months to a different entity for $100000. But a premium or a discount becomes unavoidable in hedging, which ultimately becomes the gain or loss in foreign exchange.

Hedging with Currency Futures

You must have guessed that the Futures are very much related to Forward contracts. The Futures are in fact Forward Contracts traded in an organized exchange, on a massive scale. One of the major differences between Futures and Forward Contracts is that, the underlying commodity is not physically exchanged between a buyer and a seller at the expiry of the Futures Contract. Instead, the difference between the Futures price and the spot price is settled by the exchange with the buyer and the seller. 

Please read my blog on the mechanics of futures https://finaccfundas.blogspot.in/2018/01/very-basic-tutorial-for-futures.html

As explained before, for hedging a foreign currency transaction we take the opposite position of the transaction in a forward contract. In futures also we do the same.

Let us take the same example that we used in hedging of currency sing forward contracts. For ease, I will reproduce the example

A company ABC Ltd, based in New York, sells a product to XYZ Inc which is based in London and ships it on 1st Jun 2017 on three months credit. It sells the same product in the US market for $120000. Since the spot rate of EURUSD currency pair on 1st Jun 2017 is 1.20, it prices the product EUR 100000 for it's European customer. The settlement is on 1st September 2017. At the same time, in order to hedge the transaction, ABC Ltd sells 1 lot of EURUSD futures on 1st September 2017 .  At this point we look at multiple scenarios. The balance sheet date for ABC Ltd is on 30th Jun 2017. We will consider following cases. 

On Jun 1st ABC Ltd makes the following entry for sales

If you have read my blog on futures, you will understand that the futures rates are marked to market on a real time basis, and the settlement is also real time. However the company cannot transfer the Gain/Loss in the currency futures along with the margin money from it's trading account to it's bank, until it either closes the position or at expiry.  However the company has to enter certain accounting entries on the date of balance sheet.


Since the company shorted EURUSD, in both CASE 1 and CASE 2, there is going to be a Gain/Loss in derivative transactions and a Gain/Loss in foreign exchange on sales. Though it is a non cash gain/loss, it has to be reported on the balance sheet date.

Since the company sold 120000 dollars (the product is manufactured by spending dollars and the mark up for the effort also is in dollars) to purchase 100000 Euros ( Customer pays in Euros). And we converted the accounts receivable entry from 100000 Euros to 120000 dollars. Now on Jun 30th, the dollar changed .

  So we need to re translate the accounts receivables  to changed dollar value.

The calculations for these gains and losses are shown in the table below

The re translation entries are

For recording derivative Gains and Losses, we calculate the difference between the current futures rate and the rate at which the futures is shorted. Multiply by the lot size. This gives you the total of all the credits and debits, which gives the profit/loss on the trade. Please read my blog on futures.

This profit/loss, though in paper, the company can claim any time, by closing the positions or at expiry. So it can always create a receivable, if its a profit in the trade, or a payable, if its a loss in the trade. We call these receivables as derivative assets and payables as derivative liabilities. Once the company takes the payout, if it's a profit or pays in if its a loss, after it either closes the account or at expiry, we settle the cash payout/pay ins against these assets/liabilities respectively. This can be seen as you read on.

Derivative Gain/Loss entries are

Now on Sept 1st all the four cases have different spot rates which is equal to the futures rate at expiry on Sept 1. Again we re translate the accounts receivable and record derivative gain loss.

The calculations are as follows

For re translation of accounts receivable.

For recording derivatives Gain/Loss

Recap

These are the steps we have taken till now.

1. We record the sale of the product priced EUR 100000 in dollars $120000 using the spot rate of             1.20 EURUSD on Jun 1st.
2.  On Jun 30th, since it is the balance sheet date, we record foreign currency gain on the accounts           receivable (cash receivable for sale in Euros expressed in dollars). This is done by re translating         the accounts recievables, using the spot rates on Jun 30th, for the four different cases.
3.  We create a derivative asset/ liability, which is a receivables/ payables entry for the paper                     gain/loss in the trading account, and record a derivative gain loss using the existing futures rates         for the four different cases on June 30th.
4.   At the time of expiry we again re traslate the accounts receivable using the then spot/futures rate         as both will be the same, and also again update the derivative assets. liabilities for the paper                 gain/loss on the expiry close.

Balances in various accounts 

Now let us check the balances in assets receivables, and derivative assets/liabilities accounts after all these entries

Also let us check what the company can take out for profit in trade or what the company needs to compensate if it's a loss once futures expired.

Final Settlement Entries

Now once the cash is received from the customer in Euros on Sept 1, it is converted to dollars @ the spot rate and closed against Accounts Receivables. Then the cash is transferred between the trading account and the bank account, and is closed against the derivative assets and liabilities

Gain/Loss Comparison between hedging using a bespoke currency forward contract and Currency Futures

Now let us see the net Gain/Loss in hedging using Currency Futures

Now let us compare it with Gain/Loss in hedging by using a bespoke currency forward contract, I am reproducing the chart here.

The net result is the same.

Conclusion

A company can choose to hedge it's transactions using bespoke forward contracts or by using Currency Futures. Either way the results will be similar. The choice really depends upon other ancillary charges such as brokerage, taxes etc.

Very basic tutorial for Futures Contracts, Open Interest and Volume relationship

Intro

          Futures Contracts in its simplest form are formed between two parties. A buyer and a seller. To explain why people engage in these kind of contracts can be best explained with examples

WORTH OR FMV OF A FUTURES CONTRACT

      Futures contract like a forward contract is worth nothing while the contract is formed. It's Fair Market Value is Zero every day, as the settlement is on daily basis. When you read on you will know the reasons why.

Futures

       If you are a newbie in futures trading in a stock market, you must have wondered what happens behind the curtain of a futures market.

Organized Exchanges

           Just like banks, there are security, commodity or currency exchanges that gives you a venue to trade in them. They create a market for them, They also create instruments called futures contracts, which are nothing but forward contracts traded on a large volume. There are a few differences between futures contracts and bespoke forward contracts

Kindly read my blogs on Comparison between Forward contract, Futures and Options. Also read the blog on Forward contracts, Futures and and Hedging Accounting.

Market Makers

            
           Please read my blog on Market makers to get an idea of their role in futures trading.

About Futures

          Before going through the definition of futures, you have to understand two kinds of prices.

1. Spot price

             It is the current price of the underlying security, commodity or currency on which the futures is based on. Every futures have their own underlying security, commodity or currency. The relation between the futures and the underlying security, commodity or currency will become apparent when you read on

2. Futures price

             It is the price agreed upon by a buyer and a seller of a futures contract. How the price is arrived at will be seen later. This is also called the forward price. 

 What are futures

   
              This is the most important thing to understand. There is no contract between a buyer and a seller. There isn't any physical delivery of the underlying security, commodity or currency between the seller and the buyer as in the case of a bespoke forward contract. When a buyer buys futures, it becomes a long position, and when a seller sells futures, it becomes a short position. Each positions are unique. You can sell your long position or buy your short position at anytime, given there is a buyer or a seller for your positions.  Daily settlement of the difference between the opening futures price and the closing futures price is undertaken by the corresponding security, commodity or currency exchanges.

            To understand how the futures is settled, you have to read on.

Long trader and Short trader

  
           People who believe that the spot price would go up are called Long traders, and their futures position  is called a Long position.

           People who believe that the spot price would go down are called Short traders, and their futures position  is called a Short position.

Bid price and Ask price and Spread

          Bid price is the price at which a buyer puts up a buy order. Ask price is the price at which a seller puts up his sell order. The difference between the bid and the ask price is called the spread.

Futures Pricing

       The pricing of the futures of a stock, has nothing to do with the pricing of the underlying security, commodity or currency. ie if futures of the stock of a company XYZ is priced $222, when the price of the stock is $220, the futures pricing has nothing to do with either the underlying stock of the company, or with anything else.

         Futures pricing, simply depends on the price arrived by a buyer and a seller. The buyer and the seller arrives at a price to make a profit. The price of the futures of a stock, which is displayed on a computer screen, can either be the last traded price, or the average price or anything else. It is normally the Last Traded Price.

         Last traded price is the price at which the last trade has happened between a buyer and a seller. When the next trade happens at a different price, that price becomes the last traded price.

Why do people trade in futures

         Why trade such complicated instruments. Why not buy some stock if you believe that it will go up in price. This is where leverage plays a role. Every exchange provides leverage for a futures trader.

         If you wish to buy 1000 nos of $100 shares of XYZ corp, you will have to put up $100000. Now if your exchange gives you a leverge of 1:100 for the futures of the same XYZ corp, then you can buy futures. You know that the lot size for the futures of XYZ corp, is 1000 nos per lot. You can buy 1 lot ie 1000 nos of $100 futures of XYZ corp for $1000 only. This is what is meant by a leverage of 1:100. You need to put up 1/100th of the value of the futures. And you can have the same profit if price of the underlying stock goes up. This is because the futures price more or less follows the spot price. Why so? Follow on.

Why does the futures price closely follow the underlying stock price

          You visit your broker's office. You see that the stock of XYZ corp is trading at $100. Since you are very clever, and since you have read this blog, you decide to buy 1 lot of XYZ corp futures. You know that 1 lot has 1000 nos of XYZ corp futures. And you see that the Last traded price is $102. But since you have read in this blog, that the price of the futures is determined only by the buyer and the seller, you decide to put a buy order for 1 lot of XYZ corp at $20. The broker looks at you as if you don't know anything. Then a message in the screen reports that $20 is no allowed, the maximum deviation from the last traded price, is 20%. So you modify your buy order to $80. Now you find out that the nearest seller is at $106.

        Now you understand an important principle of the futures trading. Futures price always closes at the spot price when the contract expires. And there is a low probability that the spot price on the expiry date would veer off very far from the current spot price, if the volatility is low. So if a buyer and a seller some how forms a futures contract for a price far from the current spot price, one of them is most likely to lose a lot of money. But when the volatility is high, the premium or discount to the spot price increases, due to uncertainty of where the spot price might go. Also in long term expiries, the premium/ discount will be higher as the probability of a spot price moving far from the current spot price is more.

         Traders always believe that the stock price will ( in the worst case) hover around the current spot price.. This is because, the expiry date for a stock futures contract is normally a short period, most of the time, 1 month. So if the trend of the stock is upward, a Long trader(buyer) will naturally assume the spot price would go up, and in the worst case to stay the same,  And a Short trader will believe that the price of the stock will decrease towards the expiry date or in the worst case will remain the same.

         Normally people do not think that anything exceptionally good or bad will happen to the underlying stock. This shortsightedness is what allows the futures price to follow the underlying stock. When volatility increases the premium or discount to the spot price increases exponentially. This is also because of the action of market makers covering their loses due to volatility. Kindly read my blog on market makers.

         Now when you put the buy order at $80, the Short traders will think that if they sold you at $80, and in the worst case, if the spot price remains the same, then they will lose $20. So he will always try to sell you at a price above $100, which is the spot price of the underlying stock.

         Since you finally understood this principle, you increase your buy order to $100. You are sure a seller would agree to sell you at this price. But no one is willing to sell you at this price. This is because the general market is in an uptrend. So the Short traders would like to sell you at a price above $100, just in case, the stock moves up. Now you understand that why the Last traded price was at $102. So you increase the price to $101. Suddenly a seller matches your bid price and the trade happens at $101. And the last traded price resets to $101.

Daily settlement and Margin calls 

          This is a bit complicated. You may have to read this section many times to understand the process.

Leverage

       The security, commodity or currency market futures contracts are made mostly for speculative purposes, though some traders may use it for hedging. Most of the traders  are attracted to futures because of the leverage these kind of instruments give.

        Leverage is the ability of a trader to buy and sell an instrument with an amount which is smaller than the actual value of the trade. With a little money you can trade large amount of instruments and can make potentially huge profits (or losses). The money you require to trade is called the margin money. You just need to keep the money in your account. You can also keep an equivalent amount of the underlying security or commodity for leveraging.

          Since huge leverages are used, if a stock is going down the drain, a person who has taken a trade against the trend of the underlying stock might lose large amount of money, if he holds a futures contract till its expiry. By the time, the contracts expire, the trader who has taken a position against the trend, will find his account burned.

         As you have read in the beginning, all the settlements on a daily basis is done by the security, commodity or currency exchange. Which means, the exchange has to credit money to a trader who has mad a profit, and debit money from a trader, who has made a loss. When a Long trader takes a long position on an underlying security, commodity or currency which is plummeting, then he will have to give huge amount of money to the exchange. There is a possibility of someone absconding without paying his liabilities, or huge litigation costs for the brokers or the exchange.

             In order to make settlements on a daily basis, and for protecting the recovery of losses, the exchanges have put in place two mechanisms; Margin Money and Daily Settlement.

Margin 

            As you have read, the exchanges debits money from the  losers account and also credits the profits in the gainers account. So the distribute profit and losses. The brokers take commission from both the buyer and the seller for each trade. The exchanges also need to minimize risk of non payment of liabilities.

         In order to make payments for profits and retrieve the losses, the exchange pools money from the traders. Every trader has to maintain some margin money or an equivalent amount of the underlying security, commodity or currency with the exchange, if he wishes to buy or sell futures. This is done by blocking the cash equivalent to the margin, or blocking the equivalent security, commodity or currency in the traders demat account. If you don't have any money in the account you need to pay into your demat account upfront.  This money is a fraction of the actual value of futures traded. The margin money is set by the exchange almost daily and depends upon the following. Remember, the exchange do not debit your account for margin money. You just need to maintain it in your de mat account or you need to have an equivalent amount of the underlying security or commodity.

          If the stock plummets, then the exchange's only option to retrieve money from a buyer is to debit money from the margin money he has kept or sell security, commodity or currency if he has any. If the number of traders are low for a futures, then if a fall out happens, a buyer cannot exit his trade, or if the stock sky rockets, then the seller also might not be able to cover his position. In order to protect itself from these scenarios the exchange insists on the maintenance of margin by the traders.         

Daily settlement of some futures contracts and the principle of Mark To Market

Consider the following example in John's Ledger

           Check John's Ledger for the example. A long trader, John has taken a long position by buying into a contract at a price of $102 on day 6 after the market opening. He maintains the margin money set by the Exchange, which is $10000. He has taken 1 lot of 1000 nos each. The underlying stock price at that time is $100. All of a sudden, some bad news circulates about the company, and the stock starts to move down. After a few days, the futures price also moves down to $88, on day 9. Now John panics and tries to exit. He thinks of putting up a sell order at $88. The nearest buyer is also at $88. If the trade happens, John would owe the exchange $12*1000, ie $12000. He would be unable to pay such a huge sum to the exchange.

            So instead of allowing the long traders and the short traders to hold the contract until it expires, without making any top ups for margin money, the exchange decides to settle the contract on a daily basis. The basic idea is to settle whatever the difference between the opening and the closing price of futures on a daily basis when the market closes.

            In the above example, the buy position trade is executed at a price of $102 on day 6 opening. At closing of the day, the LTP is $99. John's account is debited $3 X 1000 and an opposite seller is credited $3 X 1000.

            This is done by a simple method. The exchange sells the long position of the long trader  at the closing price of $99 and buys the short position of the short trader at the same closing price. So when the market closes, the contract is settled, and John and the seller no longer holds any contract. The loss incurred by John, $3000 is debited from his margin money and credited to the seller. But on the next day morning, a new contract is created between John and the seller for $99.

              So in effect, the contract is reset to $99 and the difference is settled with both the John and the opposite seller. This goes on till the expiry, if the John and the seller chooses not to liquidate their position. There must be other buyers and sellers in the market, who have traded futures at different prices, but their futures are also settled and reset at the closing price of the futures.

            Remember, The futures prices are reset at the previous closing price of the futures and not the previous closing price of the underlying security, commodity or currency. This process of resetting the futures price to the closing market price on a periodic basis is called Mark to Market.

Please read on to know how this is done.

Margin Call

              Continuing with the previous example. This situation is not shown in John's Ledger. What happens when the price of the futures falls to a closing price $80 in a days time.  In that case, even if the exchange resets the prices, John has maintained only a margin of $10000 or an equivalent amount of security, commodity or currency. The exchange has to debit $102-$80=$22, loss per futures, ie $22*1000=$22000, from John's account, in order to reset the prices. Again this situation is not shown in John's Ledger.

             So the exchange makes a margin call. The exchange demands $12000 or more from John which the buyer has to bring in, into his de mat account, if he wishes to trade again in the futures market at all. If he doesn't top up the margin money called, then the exchange retrieves the money by either selling his other assets or through litigation. He will also be banned from the futures market.

              If the price starts plummeting at a very high rate, then the exchange might sell the long positions, without asking the buyers, and then make the margin call. This is applicable to the sellers as well, if the prices sky rocket.

Settlement at the time of expiry

            If you have read the daily settlement section, you must have understood that, the prices are reset every morning to the previous day closing prices. So you can only imagine that, the price of the futures John have been holding till expiry,  will also be reset to the previous day closing price, at the day of expiry .

             Check John's Ledger for the example. Continuing with the earlier example, John had bought the futures at $102 on day 6. After resetting daily, the price of the futures at the start of the day of expiry is $105.5, say. And John still is not willing to sell it. At the end of the day of the expiry, the underlying stock closes at $106.

                 Now the exchange has to honor the contract. So it will assign a value of $106 for John's futures, which he had bought at $102 at day 6, and releases the blocked margin money in his demat account and credit difference of ($106-$105.5) back to his account. This is synonymous with the function of a forward contract, though the forward contract settles the whole difference between the spot price and the forward rate, at one go at the date of the expiry. John's profit for the day is $0.5*1000, his account will be credited $500 minus the transaction costs like brokerage, tax etc.

Suppose John had sold the futures ie taken a short position at day 6, at a price of $102. And the opening futures price on expiry day, which is also the previous closing price, is $105.5. Then also the exchange assigns $106 for your short position and debits the loss of $0.5*1000 from your account.

Mind you in futures, the last day settlement is the difference between the opening futures price on the last day and the closing futures price which is equal to the closing spot price. But in the forward contract, the last day settlement is the difference between the expiry spot price and the forward price entered in the contract in the beginning, as it is not settled  on a daily basis at all.

The profit/loss in a traders account cannot be transferred along with the margin money to his bank account, unless and until he closes his position or till expiry.

Can you buy and sell between the Day 1 and the expiry date

                  Of course you can. You can buy on Day 9 opening, the long position which John had bought at $102 on day 6 or for that matter any trader who has been holding a long position and is willing to sell. Check the table of settlement for the example. You can buy it at any price John agrees to sell it to you. As usual the price of the long position on Day 9 will also be hovering around the underlying stock price. Say the stock price at Day 9, at the time of trading is $90. The last traded price of futures is say $88. And you put a buy order at $89. Suddenly, John, who bought a long position at $102 on day 6 is ready to sell to you at $88. The trade can happen if you come down to $88. John, if he sells you his buy position would lose $102-$88=$14 per futures in his account ie $14000. But to his credit he doesn't sell. As you can see in the table of settlement, that John indeed got a combined debit of $14000 in his account at the end of day 9. 

If you had bought John's position on Day 9, you can sell it at $95 on day 12 opening, if there is another buyer available, who is willing to buy your long position a that price. You will make a profit of $8000

               From John's Ledger, you can also see that the discount and premium of the futures price over the spot price varies according to the direction of the spot price movement, the speed of movement of the spot price and the proximity to the date of expiry. Also you can see that the difference between the credit and debit in John's account $18000-$14000= $4000 is his net profit as he held his position through $102 to $106. This profit is also the same as the difference between the spot price $106 at expiry and the forward price he entered into while he bought the position in the futures contract.

               The mechanism of daily trades are elucidated graphically in coming sessions. So please read on.

Real Time Mark to Market and Settlement of some currency futures and the concept of continuous contracts.

                  Major pairs of currency futures, where various currencies are traded against US dollar, are sometimes marked to market on a real time tick basis. This means that each tick of a change in the forward price of the futures triggers a mark to market of the futures price and the consequent settlement in real time basis. These are also continuous contracts, in which, after the expiry, the contract is renewed automatically to the next expiry date. This goes on until the position is closed by a trader. Please check the following example.

Real time Settlement in currency futures example

Consider the following traders ledger

  

Now this trader Mr Paul, decides to buy 1 lot of EURUSD @ 1.23 on a certain day. When paul had opened the account, the spot rate was 1.22. The exchange allows him a leverage of 1:100. 1 lot = 100000 EURUSD

Margin Money Calculation

Since the leverage is 1:100, He needs 1000 euros in his account, because 1 lot = 100000 EURUSD. Which means he trades 100000 euros for corresponding dollars (at the currency rate). 1000 euros = $1220 at the time of opening the account. So he needs to maintain $1220 in his account as margin

What is EURUSD currency futures

Now let us examine what 1 EURUSD @ 1.23 means. It means 1 euro can be traded for 1.23 dollars. So 100000 EURUSD @ 1.23 means, 100000 euros can be traded for 123000 dollars.

Now if Paul buys 100000 EURUSD, he enters into a futures contract to buy 100000 euros by selling 123000 dollars to an opposite trader, at the expiry date.

       If Paul sells 100000 EURUSD, he enters into a futures contract to sell 100000 euros for 123000 dollars to an opposite trader, at the expiry date.

Of course this is theoretical. If you check the real time settlement in Paul's ledger, EURUSD is marked to market in real time, and settlement is also done real time.

Real time settlement if held to expiry

Consider another trade in Paul's ledger.

As you can see, at the time of expiry, the futures price is marked to the spot price. The profit/loss in a traders account cannot be transferred along with the margin money to his bank account, unless and until he closes his position or till expiry.

Similarities with a currency forward contract

Consider that Paul enters a forward contract with another seller, that he would sell 100000 Euros in exchange of $123000 at the expiry of the contract. The spot currency rate is EURUSD 1.20. The contract entry in his accounting journal would look like

At expiry if EURUSD spot rate closes at 1.23015 just as when Paul held futures till expiry.

His accounting entry would be

You can see that Paul made the same profit in forward contracts as he did in the currency futures. Therefore the premiu/discount in a forward contract entry simply doesn't matter. Also the spot price at which the contract is entered also doesn't matter.

Ultimately, if a trader opens a forward contract to buy euros for a forward rate or if he chooses to buy EURUSD currency futures, in effect, it's the same.

Open Interest and Volume

           Before we begin talking about open interest and volume, let us go through some figures, which illustrate what happens in a futures market place.

        Snapshot 1 is a snapshot of the futures market for a series, when the series has just been open by the exchange for trading. As you can see, there aren't any orders put up by any trader, yet.


                                                                          Snapshot 1

     

                Futures are offered for trading in a series. If they are 1 month futures, then they will be Jan series, Feb series etc. And they all have an expiry date, usually in the last week of the month. Any trader can choose to trade any series, provided there is a trader in the opposite position. If you are a buyer, then there has to be a seller and vice versa. Normally trading volume is highest in the current series. If the day in which you have decided to trade is January, then Jan series will have the maximum volume of trades, then the Feb series and so on. This is because traders do no like to forecast for long term.

Series beginning

               In order for trade to begin in a series, two things have to happen.

1. The series has to be opened to the traders by the exchange.

2. There must be matching buy orders and sell orders for trades to be executed.

           

             

                                                                        Snapshot 2

                             
                 
                    Snapshot 2 is the snapshot of the market when the buy orders and sell orders have been put up by the traders. You can see that, none of the buy orders and sell orders have matched. So no trade has been executed yet.

                                                                       Snapshot 3

In snapshot 3, the arrows represent order matching. Either the buyer or the seller or both relented and the trade is executed
                       
                                                                       Snapshot 4

Open Interest

                     In snapshot 4, you can see that long positions and short positions are formed.  And all the long positions and short positions are formed in pairs. As you can see from the snapshot, a pair of long and short position is called an open interest. Any two buy order and sell order can be selected for counting an open interest. Normally, open interest, is referred to the total number of pairs of long or short positions that remain open, in a period.

                                                                    
                                                                     Snapshot 5
                                                                       

                                                                       Snapshot 6

Type of trades

               As you can see from snapshot 5, there are four different trade executions.

Type 1 

                This type of trade execution happens when the price of a standalone buy order is matched with a stand alone sell order.  As you can see in Snapshot 5 and 6, a new open interest is formed in this type of trade execution.

Type 2

                 This type of trade execution happens in a existing open interest. When a  Long position is closed against a Short position, type 2 trade happens. It can happen within any two Long and short position. Only condition is that, the price has to be agreed between the buyer and the seller. These kind of trade executions mostly happen at the time of expiry, though it can happens in any day.

Type 3   

                   This type of trade execution also happens in a existing open interest.  In order to cover his Short position, a seller might put out a buy order. If it is matched by a seller who doesn't have an existing short position, then this trade execution happens. As you can see in snapshot 5 and 6, the open interest is not closed in this case, just the sellers are exchanged.

Type 4

                      This type of trade execution also happens in a existing open interest.  In order to exit his Long position, a buyer might put out a sell order. If it is matched by a buyer who doesn't have an existing long position, then this trade execution happens. As you can see in snapshot 5 and 6, the open interest is not closed in this case, just the buyers are exchanged.

Volume

                        Volume is the number of trades happened in a period. As you can see all the four types of trade executions increases the volume, while open interest increases, decreases or remain the same, depending on the type of trade.

The following flow chart brings clarity on the process of trade execution.

                                                          Flow chart on the order process

                                                                       Snapshot 7

               
                                                                       Snapshot 8

                     Snapshot 7 and 8 happens at the time of expiry of a series. The exchange identifies all the pairs of open interests, and assigns settles each buyer against a seller. It can be any buyer against any seller as shown in Snapshot 7 and 8.

Conclusion

                   Futures trading is very popular among stock market, currency and other derivatives traders, because of the leverage, the market makers provides. Any body can make large profits in futures trading, but can give them all up and more, eventually. Futures are also used in large scale for hedging purposes.